Water is the second most vital substance for the sustenance of life as we know it. On Earth, water comprises approximately 75% of the surface. Over 97% of Earth’s water is ocean water; another 2.7% exists as ice caps, glaciers, soil moisture, and shallow (less than a half mile) and deep lying ground water. This leaves less than 1% to be found in our lakes, rivers and streams.

 

Certainly, water is essential to our survival on this planet. More specifically, humans need fresh, clean drinking water or we will certainly perish. In this paper, I will discuss why our bodies need water to survive, the consequences of not drinking fresh clean water, the differences between water and other beverages, and the different types of drinking water available to us. I will then report on some local, national, and international water issues.

The Necessity of Hydration

          Hydration—keeping a sufficient level of water in the body—is important for many reasons. The adult human body is made up of approximately 60-75% water and loses approximately a half gallon per day through urination, defecation, perspiration, and breathing. Water makes up 83% of the blood and almost 98% of intestinal, gastric, salivary, and pancreatic juices. Most of our organs are comprised of over 70% water with the brain and the lungs being 80-85% water. Needless to say, water is a vital component of the body’s fluids.

 

Furthermore, all aspects of body metabolism depend on the water-dependent chemical reaction of hydrolysis. Additionally, water flow through the cell membrane generates hydroelectric energy that, when converted to ATP and GTP, provide power for such processes as neurotransmission. Water is also important to the stability of cell architecture. And mucous membranes need water to stay soft and to keep their surfaces friction-free. Water also helps move food particles through the gastrointestinal system and flushes toxins and salt out of the body. And water is important for good circulation.

 

But most importantly, water is the solvent of the body. As the body’s solvent, water regulates all functions of the body including the activity of all the solutes (solid matter) that are dissolved in it. In other words, the proper functioning of all parts and systems of the body depend on proper hydration of the body.

Improper Hydration

          In his book Your Body’s Many Cries for Water, Dr. F. Batmanghelidj discusses the effects of improper hydration. Apparently, when the human body is not properly hydrated, an automatic water rationing and distribution system is activated. Upon the first signals of inadequate hydration, the neurotransmitter histamine and its agents begin the promotion of water intake as well as the rationing and redistribution of the water already in the body. This is essentially the body’s system of drought management. Importantly, histamine and its agents cause pain when they encounter pain-sensing nerves in the body. These chronic pains are the body’s first noticeable signs of dehydration. Unfortunately, people have not been taught to recognize these as such. According to Dr. Batmanghelidj, these chronic pains include dyspepsia, rheumatoid arthritis, angina, low back pain, intermittent leg pain, migraines, hangovers, colitis and constipation. It is important to note here that thirst and dry mouth occur only after the body has been chronically dehydrated. All of these pains are indications of conditions that, if not treated properly, will undoubtedly lead to extreme discomfort, severe illness and possibly death. Other factors contributing to dehydration are stress, depression, smoking, and the consumption of caffeine, refined sugar, inorganic minerals, processed ex-foods, and alcohol.

 

          If Dr. Batmanghelidj’s theory is true, then most people in this culture are living in a state of chronic dehydration. A case could then certainly be made to label dehydration as the number one cause of death.

Contaminated Water

          In their book Water: The Shocking Truth, Dr. Patricia Bragg and her father Dr. Paul Bragg contend that the only water suitable for drinking is distilled. They state that all other water is contaminated with bacteria, inorganic minerals, chemicals, chemical by-products, or dirt.

 

Apparently, all tap water undergoes chemical treatment with either chlorine or fluoride—or both. According to the Braggs, both chemicals have a toxic effect on the body and neither treatments remove inorganic minerals from the water. These inorganic substances get stored in tissue and have a fossilizing effect.

 

          A recent study by the California Department of Health Services reported that pregnant women increased their risk of miscarriage by drinking five or more glasses per day of tap water that contained a common chlorine by-product. Additionally, two percent of the 5,144 women in the study had a risk for miscarriage of 15.7 percent when tap water contained at least 75 micrograms per liter of total trihalomethanes (TTHMs), a chemical that forms when the disinfectant chlorine reacts with plant acids. Risk among women who had low exposure was 9.5 percent. EPA allows 100 micrograms of TTHMs per liter in U.S. water, but plans to reduce the upper limit to 80 micrograms in November.

 

State health officials are trying to balance concern for public health against the risk of overreacting to the preliminary EPA sponsored study. "State health officials said they were not making any recommendations at this point, but that boiling water would be one option [to reduce risk]." A spokesman for the state health department called the results particularly disturbing because pregnant women are often advised by physicians to drink a lot of fluids. TTHMs have previously been associated with an increased cancer risk in animals.

 

          Many people have an idea that fluoridation of water is unsafe. What they don’t know is that sodium fluoride is a waste product from the manufacture of aluminum and chemical fertilizers. When ingested, fluoride interferes with the body’s ability to metabolize calcium, impairs proper metabolism of fats, carbohydrates, and proteins, and depresses the immune system. Furthermore, fluoride consumption has been associated with bone cancer, osteoporosis, bone deformities, and declining birth rates. The Braggs suggest that fluoride can also cause the mottling of tooth enamel, mongolism in infants, an increase in the rate of cancer cell growth, and many, many other adverse health situations. Needless to say, fluoride can be considered a major contaminant.

 

Another source of contamination is the container in which water is stored. Metallic and certain plastic containers can leach out into water over time. Containers made from a food grade material eliminate leaching problems. Glass and stainless steel are examples of food grade container material.

Other Beverages

          Many people believe that they can satisfy their water intake by drinking other beverages such as fruit and vegetable juice, tea, coffee, milk, sodas and other sugar drinks, and even alcohol. Unfortunately, they are mistaken. Although all of the beverages mentioned contain water, many of them also contain substances that either serve as a diuretic or activate the stress response. Freshly juiced fruit and vegetable juice are as close as one can get to water; they are also beneficial because they contain enzymes, vitamins, and organic minerals which provide nutrition and help cleanse the body. Yet, juices are not a sufficient long-term substitute for water. Interestingly though, the water in fruit juice is naturally distilled. Although coffee, tea, and sodas consist mostly of water, they also contain caffeine which not only is a diuretic but can over stimulate the heart, deplete the brain and body of ATP-stored energy, and inhibit the enzyme system involved with learning and memory development. Alcohol is a diuretic. Additionally, over ingestion of alcohol can lead to vomiting and diarrhea.  And although cow’s milk is not a diuretic, many people are lactose intolerant and suffer from diarrhea when they consume it. Excessive loss of bodily fluids during diarrhea and vomiting can also lead to dehydration. 

Different Types of Drinking Water

Different types of water are consumed throughout the world, some bottled and some not. Bottled water is generally categorized by the source of the water. In the United States, the FDA has established Standards of Identity for bottled water. These are uniform definitions, which apply to all bottled water in the U.S., regardless of where the water is purchased. Bottled water is defined as water intended for human consumption and is sealed in bottles or other containers with no added ingredients (except that it may optionally contain safe and suitable anti-microbial agents). Fluoride may be optionally added. Bottled water may be used as an ingredient in beverages (e.g., diluted juices, flavored bottled waters). The different types of bottled waters are as follows:

·         Artesian Water is water from a well tapping a confined aquifer in which the water level stands at some height above the top of the aquifer. May also be known as "artesian well water".

·         Ground Water is water from a subsurface saturated zone that is under pressure equal to or greater than atmospheric pressure.

·         Mineral Water is water that contains not less than 250 parts per million (ppm) of total dissolved solids (TDS), comes from a source tapped at one or more bore holes or springs, and originates from a geologically and physically protected underground water source. Mineral water is distinguished from other types of water by its constant level and relative proportions of minerals and trace elements at the point of emergence from the source, due to the cycles of natural fluctuations. No minerals may be added to the water. If the TDS content of mineral water is below 500 ppm, or if it is greater than 1,500 ppm, the statement "low mineral content" or "high mineral content", respectively, will appear on the label. If the TDS of mineral water is between 500 and 1,500 ppm, no additional statement need appear.

·         Purified Water is water that has been produced by distillation, de-ionization, reverse osmosis, or other suitable processes and meets the definition of "purified water" in the United States Pharmacopeia. May also be known as "de-mineralized water".

·         Sparkling Water (or carbonated water) is water that contains, after treatment and possible replacement of carbon dioxide, the same amount of carbon dioxide that it had at emergence from the source.

·         Spring Water is water derived from an underground formation from which water flows naturally to the surface of the earth.

·         Sterile Water is water that meets the requirements under "Sterility Tests" in the United States Pharmacopeia. May also be known as "sterilized water".

·         Well Water is water that is taken from a hole which is bored, drilled, or otherwise constructed in the ground, tapping the water of an aquifer.

·         Distilled Water is water that has been heated to boiling and turned to vapor, leaving behind contaminants (bacteria and inorganic minerals). The water vapor enters a condenser where it is cooled and returned to a liquid state, ready for use. It works slowly, taking a few hours to produce the first quart of water, and uses a lot of electricity.

·         Tap Water is water that has been chemically treated with chlorine and/or fluoride and is delivered to homes and businesses via copper or steel pipes. Tap water contains chlorine by-products and inorganic materials and may even contain particulate matter to small to be filtered out at the holding facilities

·         Rain Water is water that precipitates from cloud formations. Because rain water passes through the atmosphere, it is quite often contaminated by smog, fluorocarbons, and radioactive fallout by the time it reaches the ground.

·         Hard Water is water that has large amounts of calcium or magnesium dissolved in it. The calcium and magnesium precipitate out of the water and stick to things. Hard water also reacts with soap to form a sticky scum, and also reduces the soap's ability to lather.  Calcium and magnesium are removed by the process of distillation or reverse osmosis to remove the calcium and magnesium, or by a water softener. Water is softened by running the water through a bed of particles covered with sodium ions. As the water flows past the sodium ions, they swap places with the calcium and magnesium ions.

 

Two processes involved in the purification of water are reverse osmosis and de-ionization. Reverse Osmosis (RO) is a filtering process that makes use of a semi-permeable membrane. This membrane lets particles of a certain size or smaller through and keeps back larger particles. Unfortunately, some contaminants can make it through the membrane just like water molecules, so a granular activated carbon filter is added at the end of the process to capture these materials. Reverse osmosis, by itself, does not effectively remove pesticides or trihalomethanes.

 

De-ionization is the process of removing ionized solids from water using the principles of ion exchange. All dissolved minerals in water are composed of both a metallic part (a positively charged cation) and a non-metallic part (a negatively charged anion). The simplest de-ionizer is a two-column unit in which the cation exchange resin is held in one pressure vessel and the anion exchange resin in another. Water first passes through the cation tank then the anion tank.

Local Water Issues

Water is delivered to homes and business locally through water districts. One local water provider is the East Bay Municipal Utilities District (EBMUD). EBMUD supplies water and provides wastewater treatment for approximately 1.2 million people in parts of Alameda and Contra Costa counties. Of specific concern to EBMUD customers are water quality, wastewater treatment, MTBE in EBMUD reservoirs, chloramine conversion, and reservoir cleaning.

 

Water Quality. EBMUD’s primary water source is the Mokelumne River in the Sierra Nevadas which flows into the Pardee Reservoir in the Sierra foothills near the town of Valley Springs. The water is carried to the East Bay in large steel pipelines—the Mokelumne Aqueducts—and is protected from pesticides, agricultural or urban runoff, municipal sewage discharges and industrial toxins. EBMUD drinking water is regularly sampled and tested from all parts of the water system to ensure that it meets or exceeds all primary and secondary regulatory standards established by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and the California Department of Health Services. Chemical and physical tests are performed in laboratories at EBMUD water treatment plants throughout each day. In addition, more than 300,000 water-sample analyses are conducted annually at EBMUD's central laboratory. Analytical results are filed with the California Department of Health Services. EBMUD asserts that their test consistently show that regulated drinking water contaminants either are not detected at all, or they are present in amounts below levels prohibited in state and federal drinking-water standards.

 

Wastewater Treatment. EBMUD treats domestic, commercial and industrial wastewater for the cities of Alameda, Albany, Berkeley, Emeryville, Oakland and Piedmont, and for the Stege Sanitary District, which serves El Cerrito, Kensington and part of Richmond. Each of these communities operates sewer collection systems that discharge into one of five EBMUD intercepting sewers. The 29 miles of interceptors collect wastewater from approximately 1,400 miles of sewers.

 

Wastewater collected by the interceptors flows to EBMUD's wastewater treatment plant in Oakland near the entrance of the San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge. Primary treatment removes floating material, oils and greases, sand and silt and organic solids heavy enough to settle in water. Secondary treatment biologically removes most of the suspended and dissolved organic and chemical impurities that would rob life-giving oxygen from the waters of the Bay if allowed to decompose naturally.

 

The treatment steps are pre-chlorination (for odor control), screening (to remove large objects), grit removal, primary sedimentation, secondary treatment using high-purity, oxygen-activated sludge, final clarification, sludge digestion, de-watering and composting. The treated effluent is then disinfected, de-chlorinated and discharged one mile off the East Bay shore through a deep-water outfall into San Francisco Bay.

 

EBMUD asserts that the treated effluent is not harmful to marine life in the Bay, however, the U.S. Geological Survey is currently conducting a study of the toxicity of the San Francisco Bay estuary. Preliminary field studies show significant reproductive damage to marine life associated with exposure to toxic waste.

 

MTBE In EBMUD Reservoirs. Methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE) is one of a group of chemicals called fuel oxygenates required in gasoline by federal and state regulations to reduce air pollutants. Drinking-water reservoirs can be contaminated by MTBE from leaking gas storage tanks and pipes, street runoff and motorboat outboard engines. Apparently, all engines discharging gasoline into water will not be banned from the San Pablo Reservoir until January 1, 2002. MTBE has been detected in San Pablo, Pardee and Camanche reservoirs. Interesting to note that there is no primary health-related drinking-water standard for MTBE.

 

Chloramine Conversion. EBMUD converted its distribution system disinfectant from free chlorine to chloramines between Feb and Apr 1998. Chloramine, a combination of chlorine and ammonia, markedly improved the persistence of disinfectant residuals in our water distribution reservoirs and 3,900 miles of pipelines, affording better protection against bacterial contamination in the system. Chloramine, however, still forms disinfection by-products in the water distribution system.

 

Reservoir Cleaning. The district’s 170 distribution reservoirs (which store treated water) are inspected and cleaned every five years. Reservoir-bottom sediment, which can come from pipe material, filter plant sand or dust entering through vents, is removed.

National Water Issues

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), which regulates bottled water as a food, requires that every bottled water product be fully tested annually for chemical, physical, and radiological contaminants. Some states also require annual testing for additional contaminants, to be licensed to sell bottled water in those states.

 

Recently, the Natural Resource Defense Council (NRDC) included tested more than 1,000 bottles of 103 brands of bottled water. While most of the tested waters were found to be of high quality, some brands were contaminated: about one-third of the waters tested contained levels of contamination -- including synthetic organic chemicals, bacteria, and arsenic -- in at least one sample that exceeded allowable limits under either state or bottled water industry standards or guidelines.

 

A key NRDC finding is that bottled water regulations are inadequate to assure consumers of either purity or safety, although both the federal government and the states have bottled water safety programs. And even when bottled waters are covered by the FDA's rules, they are subject to less rigorous testing and purity standards than those which apply to city tap water. This leaves open the possibility that some bottled water may present a health threat to people with weakened immune systems, such as the frail elderly, some infants, transplant or cancer patients, or people with HIV/AIDS.

 

In 1998, two major drinking water rules were signed by President Clinton. The Stage I-Disinfectants and Disinfection By-Products Rule (D/DBPR) and the Interim Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule (IESWTR) combine monitoring and treatment practices to control the risk from pathogens, such as Cryptosporidium. Cryptosporidium is a microscopic parasite found in animal and human wastes that potentially can contaminate sources of drinking water. The rules also limit the residual levels of disinfectants and disinfection by-products in water treatment and distribution systems.

International Water Issues

          Water pollution is a growing concern in many countries around the world. Travelers to developing nations and third world countries are cautioned to drink bottled water to avoid water-borne bacteria and other microorganisms. Additionally, there is increasing concern over environmental problems caused by the increase of pollutant loads discharged into natural water bodies. The international scientific community has very rapidly responded to the need for studies capable of relating the pollutant discharge with changes in the water quality. The results of these studies are permitting industries to employ more efficient methods of controlling and treating waste loads, and water authorities to enforce more strict regulations regarding this matter.

 

          It is my contention that a host of health problems—especially AIDS—could be greatly ameliorated internationally by the purification of drinking water supplies. Many conferences have been held to address the issues of water pollution and health, including the International Conference on Water and Health held in 1997 in Chicago, Illinois. The attendees concluded that issues of water pollution and health have several dimensions, including economics, technical, legal, disease identification and etiology, water-borne disease treatment, and many others. They also concluded that the issue of water and health is a societal issue as well. It affects virtually everyone in the world.

Summary

All though water is abundant on Earth, less than 1% is suitable or readily available for human consumption. For humans, sufficient hydration is critical for efficient metabolism, proper transportation of nutrients throughout the body, and the maintenance of all bodily functions. Insufficient hydration leads to bodily drought management which results in pain, illness, and even death. Additionally, consumption of chemically treated and contaminated water can also have serious side effects. Furthermore, the caffeine or sugar in other beverages stimulate the adrenals and have a diuretic effect on the kidneys.

 

Although different types of drinking water are available, steam distilled water is the safest because it is free of bacteria, chemicals, and inorganic minerals. Many health consultants agree that consumption of distilled water is the first step in cleansing and rejuvenating the body. All in all, water remains a primary sustenance of life, and clean safe drinking water offers continued opportunities for better health and disease prevention.

 

RESOURCES

 

Batmanghelidj, F. (1997). Your Body’s Many Cries for Water. Falls Church, VA: Global Health Solutions. (http://www.watercure.com)

 

Bragg: Pioneers in Health Since 1912. Retrieved on May 5, 2001 from the World Wide Web: http://www.bragg.com

 

Bragg, P. and Bragg, P (1999). Water: The Shocking Truth. Santa Barbara, CA: Health Science.

 

Contra Costa County Water District. Retrieved on May 15, 2001 from the World Wide Web: http://www.ccwater.com

 

East Bay Municipal Utilities District. Retrieved on May 20, 2001 from the World Wide Web: http://www.ebmud.com

 

Pure Water For U. Retrieved on May 2, 2001 from the World Wide Web: http://www.purewater4u.com

 

National Association of Physicians for the Environment. Retrieved on May 21, 2001 from the World Wide Web: http://www.napenet.org.

 

Natural Resources Defense Council. Retrieved on May 2, 2001 from the World Wide Web: http://www.nrdc.org.